TODAY WE STAND AT THE PRECIPICE OF A UNPRECEDENTED MOMENT OF NATIONAL CRISIS. THE PENTAGON HAS BEEN GIVEN A BLANK CHECK FOR PROCUREMENT AND DEPLOYMENT. THE REPUBLICAN FRIENDLY "HAWKS" IN THE DEFENSE INDUSTRY SAVOR AND RELISH THE SWEETHEART DEFENSE CONTRACTS THEY HAVE BEEN GIVEN BY THE REPUBLICAN PATRONAGE MACHINE.
THE FEDERAL RESERVE OPERATES UNAUDITED IN THE SHADOWS OF CONGRESS AS THEY PRINT HYPERINFLATIONARY DOLLARS AND PAY HOMAGE TO THE ANCIENT EUROPEAN BANKING HOUSES WHO FINANCE OUR WARS AND PROFLIGATE LIFESTYLE THROUGH MASSIVE DEBT IN WHICH THEY COLLECT HEFTY FEES AND BILLIONS IN INTEREST.
OUR CONGRESS IS SOLD TO THE HIGHEST BIDDER, WE HAVE IN FACT, "THE BEST GOVERNMENT MONEY CAN BUY"! THESE TURNCOATS CARE MORE ABOUT HELPING WALL STREET, THE BANKING AND INSURANCE GIANTS, THE DEFENSE CONTRACTORS AND THE STUDENT LOAN BANKERS THAN THEY DO THE CITIZENS OF THE REPUBLIC THEY PURPORTEDLY REPRESENT. IT IS BECAUSE OF THE CORPORATE INTERESTS THEY ARE DEPENDENT ON CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTIONS SO THAT THEY CAN OUTSPEND THEIR OPPONENTS AND ENSURE THEIR RE-ELECTION.
WE ELECT PRESIDENTS WHO BREAK THEIR CAMPAIGN PROMISES, LIE TO US WHILE LOOKING US DIRECTLY IN THE EYE AND PARADE AROUND AT FANCY PARTIES AND HOBNOB WITH THE FINANCIAL ELITE - YOU KNOW, THE 2% OF THE CITIZENS WHO CONTROL 95% OF THE WEALTH HERE IN AMERICA.
WE ELECT PRESIDENTS WHO BREAK THEIR CAMPAIGN PROMISES, LIE TO US WHILE LOOKING US DIRECTLY IN THE EYE AND PARADE AROUND AT FANCY PARTIES AND HOBNOB WITH THE FINANCIAL ELITE - YOU KNOW, THE 2% OF THE CITIZENS WHO CONTROL 95% OF THE WEALTH HERE IN AMERICA.
THESE SAME INFLUENCES CONTROL OUR MEDIA. THE DAY OF THE NEWSPAPER IS OVER AS IS THE POLITICAL CONTROL THE PUBLISHERS HELD SWAY OVER THEIR CITIES AND TOWNS IN ORDER TO ENRICH THEMSELVES.
THE RUPERT MURDOCH OWNED FOX NETWORK SPEWS ANYTHING TITTILATING AND TANTALIZING ENOUGH TO KEEP PUSHING THEIR RATINS HIGHER, PUSHING THE ENVELOPE AS TO WHAT PEOPLE FEEL AND BELIEVE.
ALL OF THE MAJOR TV AND RADIO NETWORKS HAVE NEWS BUREAUS IN ISRAEL AND THE POLITICIANS MUST HAVE THE SUPPORT OF THE ISRAELI LOBBY, AIPAC, TO ENSURE THEIR ELECTION AS WELL AS THE SUPPORT OF THE HASIDIC RABBI'S OF CHABAD. OUR FORIEGN POLICY IS ISRAELCENTRIC WITH THE SURVIVAL OF ISRAEL AT ALL COSTS. HERE WE HAVE A FOREIGN POLICY BASED ON A BUNCH OF RELIGIOUS NUTS
SOMEWHERE IN THE DESERT NEAR THE MEDDITERRANEAN SEA!
IN THE NEXT SEVERAL YEARS WE WILL SEE THE TURNCOATS AND TRAITORS FOR WHAT THEY REALLY ARE, SHILLS AND CONMEN FOR
THE MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX, THE BANKERS AND THE INSURANCE INDUSTRY AS WELL AS BIG PHARMA, RELIGIOUS NUTS IN ISRAEL, BIG OIL AND THE PENTAGON. WHETHER OR NOT WE CAN RECLAIM OUR GREATNESS IS A MATTER OF QUESTION.
THE PARTISANSHIP OF REPUBLICANS IS WITHOUT QUESTION THE MOST DAMAGING THING POLITICALLY THAT HAS EVER HAPPENED TO THIS COUNTRY. WE SUPPOSEDLY ELECTED REPRESENTATIVES AND STATESMEN YET THE REPUBLICAN PARTISANS OFFER NO ANSWER TO THE QUESTIONS OF HEALTH CARE, ADDRESSING THE NATIONAL DEBT,
ENDING THE WARS. THEY REFUSE TO COME TO TERMS WITH ANY LEGISLATION THE DEMOCRATS PUT FORTH BECAUSE THEIR ONLY
PLATFORM IS MADE UP OF TWO ISSUES-1] THE RIGHT TO LIFE AND 2] TAXCUTS. THEY ARE VAPID WHEN IT COMES TO IDEAS OF GOVERNANCE. REPUBLICANS OWE THEIR VERY EXISTENCE
TO THE MOST CONSERVATIVE AND EXTREME ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY.
TO THE MOST CONSERVATIVE AND EXTREME ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY.
ONLY TIME WILL TELL IF THEY WILL ABANDON THEIR CORPORATE AND MILITARY MASTERS AND RETURN TO SANITY AS THE FISCAL CONSERVATIVES THEY PURPORTED TO BE, A CLAIM DISPROVED BY THE GEORGE W. BUSH ADMINISTRATION AND THE REPUBLICAN CONTROLLED HOUSE AND SENATE. THESE BASTARDS CARED NOTHING OTHER THAN TO ENRICH THEMSELVES AND THEIR CRONIES! THEIR MESSAGE TO AMERICA IS "FUCK YOU, I WANT IT ALL!"
FOR TODAY
Orator
Etymology
It is recorded in English since c.1374, meaning "one who pleads or argues for a cause", from Anglo-French oratour, Old French orateur (14th century), Latin orator ("speaker"), from orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"), derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").
The modern meaning of the word, "public speaker", is attested from c.1430.
It is recorded in English since c.1374, meaning "one who pleads or argues for a cause", from Anglo-French oratour, Old French orateur (14th century), Latin orator ("speaker"), from orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"), derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").
The modern meaning of the word, "public speaker", is attested from c.1430.
History
In ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated by politicians and lawyers. As the Greeks were still seen as the masters in this field, as in philosophy and most sciences, the leading Roman families often either sent their sons to study these things under a famous master in Greece (as was the case with the young Julius Caesar), or engaged a Greek teacher (under pay or as a slave).[citation needed]
In the young revolutionary French republic, Orateur (French for "orator", but compare the Anglo-Saxon parliamentary speaker) was the formal title for the delegated members of the Tribunat to the Corps législatif, to motivate their ruling on a presented bill.
In the 19th century, orators and lecturers, such as Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Col. Robert G. Ingersoll were major providers of popular entertainment.
The term pulpit orator denotes Christian authors, often clergymen, renowned for their ability to write and/or deliver (from the pulpit in church, hence the word) rhetorically skilled religious sermons.
In some universities, the title 'Orator' is given to the official whose task it is to give speeches on ceremonial occasions, such as the presentation of honorary degrees.
In ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated by politicians and lawyers. As the Greeks were still seen as the masters in this field, as in philosophy and most sciences, the leading Roman families often either sent their sons to study these things under a famous master in Greece (as was the case with the young Julius Caesar), or engaged a Greek teacher (under pay or as a slave).[citation needed]
In the young revolutionary French republic, Orateur (French for "orator", but compare the Anglo-Saxon parliamentary speaker) was the formal title for the delegated members of the Tribunat to the Corps législatif, to motivate their ruling on a presented bill.
In the 19th century, orators and lecturers, such as Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Col. Robert G. Ingersoll were major providers of popular entertainment.
The term pulpit orator denotes Christian authors, often clergymen, renowned for their ability to write and/or deliver (from the pulpit in church, hence the word) rhetorically skilled religious sermons.
In some universities, the title 'Orator' is given to the official whose task it is to give speeches on ceremonial occasions, such as the presentation of honorary degrees.
Modern orators
Though most politicians (by nature of their office) may perform many speeches, as do those who support or oppose a political issue, to include them all would be prohibitive. The following are those who have been noted as famous specifically for their oratory abilities, and/or for a particularly famous speech or speeches.
Allied and Axis leaders of World War II noted for their speeches:
Winston Churchill (UK PM)
Charles de Gaulle (Free French general; President of France)
Joseph Goebbels
Adolf Hitler (Führer of Nazi Germany)
Douglas MacArthur - Farewell Speech to Congress
Benito Mussolini
Franklin D. Roosevelt (US President)
The Great Triumvirate:
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Daniel Webster
Atal Bihari Vajpayee (Former Prime Minister of India)
C.N. Annadurai (Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, India)
M. Karunanidhi (Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, India)
Periyar (Modern Indian Philosopher)
William Jennings Bryan - Cross of Gold speech
Frederick Douglass - Self-Made Men
Patrick Henry - Give me Liberty, or give me Death!
John F. Kennedy (US President) - inaugural address
Martin Luther King, Jr. - "I Have A Dream"
Abraham Lincoln (US President) - Gettysburg address
Richard M. Nixon (US Vice-President) - Checkers speech
Barack Obama (US President) - The Audacity of Hope, A More Perfect Union
Ronald Reagan (US President) - First Inaugural Address, Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
Sojourner Truth[1]
Malcolm X - "The Ballot or the Bullet"
Koffi Annan
Though most politicians (by nature of their office) may perform many speeches, as do those who support or oppose a political issue, to include them all would be prohibitive. The following are those who have been noted as famous specifically for their oratory abilities, and/or for a particularly famous speech or speeches.
Allied and Axis leaders of World War II noted for their speeches:
Winston Churchill (UK PM)
Charles de Gaulle (Free French general; President of France)
Joseph Goebbels
Adolf Hitler (Führer of Nazi Germany)
Douglas MacArthur - Farewell Speech to Congress
Benito Mussolini
Franklin D. Roosevelt (US President)
The Great Triumvirate:
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Daniel Webster
Atal Bihari Vajpayee (Former Prime Minister of India)
C.N. Annadurai (Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, India)
M. Karunanidhi (Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, India)
Periyar (Modern Indian Philosopher)
William Jennings Bryan - Cross of Gold speech
Frederick Douglass - Self-Made Men
Patrick Henry - Give me Liberty, or give me Death!
John F. Kennedy (US President) - inaugural address
Martin Luther King, Jr. - "I Have A Dream"
Abraham Lincoln (US President) - Gettysburg address
Richard M. Nixon (US Vice-President) - Checkers speech
Barack Obama (US President) - The Audacity of Hope, A More Perfect Union
Ronald Reagan (US President) - First Inaugural Address, Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
Sojourner Truth[1]
Malcolm X - "The Ballot or the Bullet"
Koffi Annan
SEE THIS LINK FOR ACTUAL SPEECHES!
Oratory
Oratory refers to the ancient art of (public) speaking. In ancient Greece and Rome, oratory was studied as a component of rhetoric (that is, composition and delivery of speeches), and was an important skill in public and private life. Aristotle and Quintilian discussed oratory, and the subject, with definitive rules and models, was emphasised as a part of a liberal arts education during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Etymology
Look up orator in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Latin orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"), derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").
The derived word oration, originally used for prayer since c.1375, now means (recorded since 1502) any formal speech, as on a ceremonial occasion or delivered in a similarly high-flown or pompous manner. Its etymological doublet orison is recorded since c.1175, from Anglo-French oreison, Old French oraison ("oration", 12th century), Latin oratio ("speech, oration"), notably in Church Latin ("prayer, appeal to God") from orare (as above), but retained its devotional specialisation.
The modern meaning of the word, "public speaking", is attested from c.1430.
One meaning of the word oratory is abstract: the art of public speaking. There is also the equivalent Greek word rhētōr, hence the abstract noun rhetoric.
Look up orator in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Latin orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"), derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").
The derived word oration, originally used for prayer since c.1375, now means (recorded since 1502) any formal speech, as on a ceremonial occasion or delivered in a similarly high-flown or pompous manner. Its etymological doublet orison is recorded since c.1175, from Anglo-French oreison, Old French oraison ("oration", 12th century), Latin oratio ("speech, oration"), notably in Church Latin ("prayer, appeal to God") from orare (as above), but retained its devotional specialisation.
The modern meaning of the word, "public speaking", is attested from c.1430.
One meaning of the word oratory is abstract: the art of public speaking. There is also the equivalent Greek word rhētōr, hence the abstract noun rhetoric.
Greek Oratory
The art of public speaking was first developed by the ancient Greeks. Greek oration is known from the works of classical antiquity. Greek orators spoke as on their own behalf rather as representatives of either a client or a constituency, and so any citizen who wished to succeed in court, in politics, or in social life had to learn techniques of public speaking. These skills were taught first by a group of self-styled "sophists" who were known to charge fees, to "make the weaker argument the stronger," and to make their students "better" through instruction in excellence. Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates all developed theories of public speaking in opposition to the Sophists, and their ideas took on institutional form through the development of permanent schools where public speaking was taught. Though Greece eventually lost political sovereignty, the Greek culture of training in public speaking was adopted virtually wholesale by the Romans.
The art of public speaking was first developed by the ancient Greeks. Greek oration is known from the works of classical antiquity. Greek orators spoke as on their own behalf rather as representatives of either a client or a constituency, and so any citizen who wished to succeed in court, in politics, or in social life had to learn techniques of public speaking. These skills were taught first by a group of self-styled "sophists" who were known to charge fees, to "make the weaker argument the stronger," and to make their students "better" through instruction in excellence. Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates all developed theories of public speaking in opposition to the Sophists, and their ideas took on institutional form through the development of permanent schools where public speaking was taught. Though Greece eventually lost political sovereignty, the Greek culture of training in public speaking was adopted virtually wholesale by the Romans.
Latin Oratory
After the ascension of Rome, Greek techniques of public speaking were copied and modified by the Romans. Under Roman influence, instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both forensic and deliberative genres. The Latin style was heavily influenced by Cicero, and involved a strong emphasis on a broad education in all areas of humanistic study (in the liberal arts, including philosophy), as well as on the use of wit and humor, on appeal to the listener's emotions, and on digressions, often used to explore general themes related to the specific topic of the speech. Oratory in the Roman empire, though less central to political life, remained important in law, and became (under the second Sophistic) an important form of entertainment, with famous orators or declaimers gaining great wealth and prestige for their skills.
This Latin style was the primary form of oration in the world until the beginning of the 20th century. After World War II there began a gradual deprecation of the Latin style of oration.
With the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing, even formal oratory has become less polished and ornate than in the Classical period, though politicians in democracies today can still make or break their careers on the basis of a successful (or unsuccessful) speech. Abraham Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama have all advanced their careers in large part due to their skills in oratory.
After the ascension of Rome, Greek techniques of public speaking were copied and modified by the Romans. Under Roman influence, instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both forensic and deliberative genres. The Latin style was heavily influenced by Cicero, and involved a strong emphasis on a broad education in all areas of humanistic study (in the liberal arts, including philosophy), as well as on the use of wit and humor, on appeal to the listener's emotions, and on digressions, often used to explore general themes related to the specific topic of the speech. Oratory in the Roman empire, though less central to political life, remained important in law, and became (under the second Sophistic) an important form of entertainment, with famous orators or declaimers gaining great wealth and prestige for their skills.
This Latin style was the primary form of oration in the world until the beginning of the 20th century. After World War II there began a gradual deprecation of the Latin style of oration.
With the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing, even formal oratory has become less polished and ornate than in the Classical period, though politicians in democracies today can still make or break their careers on the basis of a successful (or unsuccessful) speech. Abraham Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama have all advanced their careers in large part due to their skills in oratory.
Aristotle
Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today.
In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic." As the "antistrophe" of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned after the structure of the "strophe" (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to but different from the domain or scope of application of dialectic. In Nietzsche Humanist (1998: 129), Claude Pavur explains that "[t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of.'" When Aristotle characterizes rhetoric as the antistrophe of dialectic, he no doubt means that rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislative assembly. The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs, not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought – these, for him, are in the domain of dialectic.
Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric is an attempt to systematically describe civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion," essentially a mode of discovery, seems to limit the art to the inventional process, and Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements of style and (briefly) delivery, but also emotional appeals (pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos). He thus identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof:
ethos: how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable.
Today, this is still an effective means of persuading an audience; however, shrewd, critical listeners will note whether the "expert's" actual arguments are as impressive and satisfying as his or her title, to avoid the informal logical fallacy of an Appeal to Authority.[17]
This could be any position in which the speaker—from being a college professor of the subject, to being an acquaintance of person who experienced the matter in question—knows about the topic.
For instance, when a magazine claims that An MIT professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big-name "MIT" (a world-renowned American university for the advanced research in math, science, and technology) establishes the "strong" credibility.
pathos: the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment.
This can be done through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.
logos: the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, to construct an argument.
Logos appeals include appeals to statistics, math, logic, and objectivity. For instance, when advertisements claim that their product is 37% more effective than the competition, they are making a logical appeal.
Inductive reasoning uses examples (historical, mythical, or hypothetical) to draw conclusions.
Deductive reasoning, or "enthymematic" reasoning, uses generally accepted propositions to derive specific conclusions. The term logic evolved from logos. Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it.
Aristotle also identifies three different types or genres of civic rhetoric: forensic (also known as judicial, was concerned with determining truth or falsity of events that took place in the past, issues of guilt), deliberative (also known as political, was concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future), and epideictic (also known as ceremonial, was concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present).
One of the most famous of Aristotelian doctrines was the idea of topics (also referred to as common topics or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use in order to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name.
See Eugene Garver, Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character (University of Chicago Press,1994).
Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today.
In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic." As the "antistrophe" of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned after the structure of the "strophe" (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to but different from the domain or scope of application of dialectic. In Nietzsche Humanist (1998: 129), Claude Pavur explains that "[t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of.'" When Aristotle characterizes rhetoric as the antistrophe of dialectic, he no doubt means that rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislative assembly. The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs, not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought – these, for him, are in the domain of dialectic.
Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric is an attempt to systematically describe civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion," essentially a mode of discovery, seems to limit the art to the inventional process, and Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements of style and (briefly) delivery, but also emotional appeals (pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos). He thus identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof:
ethos: how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable.
Today, this is still an effective means of persuading an audience; however, shrewd, critical listeners will note whether the "expert's" actual arguments are as impressive and satisfying as his or her title, to avoid the informal logical fallacy of an Appeal to Authority.[17]
This could be any position in which the speaker—from being a college professor of the subject, to being an acquaintance of person who experienced the matter in question—knows about the topic.
For instance, when a magazine claims that An MIT professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big-name "MIT" (a world-renowned American university for the advanced research in math, science, and technology) establishes the "strong" credibility.
pathos: the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment.
This can be done through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.
logos: the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, to construct an argument.
Logos appeals include appeals to statistics, math, logic, and objectivity. For instance, when advertisements claim that their product is 37% more effective than the competition, they are making a logical appeal.
Inductive reasoning uses examples (historical, mythical, or hypothetical) to draw conclusions.
Deductive reasoning, or "enthymematic" reasoning, uses generally accepted propositions to derive specific conclusions. The term logic evolved from logos. Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it.
Aristotle also identifies three different types or genres of civic rhetoric: forensic (also known as judicial, was concerned with determining truth or falsity of events that took place in the past, issues of guilt), deliberative (also known as political, was concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future), and epideictic (also known as ceremonial, was concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present).
One of the most famous of Aristotelian doctrines was the idea of topics (also referred to as common topics or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use in order to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name.
See Eugene Garver, Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character (University of Chicago Press,1994).
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